If I could go back to my first year of college, I wouldn’t tell myself to study more, I would tell myself to study differently. Like most students I thought college was cramming everything to the night before exams and reread notes a million times. It felt productive, but the results didn’t always match my effort.
A concept that changes how we think about studying from cognitive psychology is Levels of Processing. Once you understand it, you stop wasting time on useless strategies and start using ones that work.
Picture this: You have a test that you need to study for. You get ready at your desk with your textbook and notes to begin studying. Then your phone goes off and before you know it, you are scrolling on TikTok or Instagram while trying to study. Does this sound like you before tests?
In this scenario, you can feel like you are getting a lot more done than you are because you are studying and scrolling or answering friends on your phone. There is a misconception that when you are working through multiple tasks at the same time, or multitasking, you are getting a lot done faster. However, in reality, you are actually less productive. This is called divided attention, and it could be the real reason why you are not able to remember the material you try to study before a big test or final. So how do you avoid falling into the trap of divided attention? We will dive into different solutions for your scrolling time and study time not overlapping.
Have you ever seen a term on a test and thought, “I’ve definitely seen this before,” even if you couldn’t fully explain it? That feeling isn’t random, it’s your brain using something called repetition priming. And even though it usually happens automatically, you can actually design your studying around it. Most students think learning only happens when they sit down and focus, but cognitive psychology shows that your brain is constantly learning from repeated exposure, even when you’re not trying. Repetition priming is one of the clearest examples of this.
What Is Repetition Priming?
Repetition priming happens when your brain processes something faster or more easily simply because you’ve seen it before. It doesn’t require conscious effort. In fact, it’s part of what psychologists call implicit memory, which works without you actively trying to remember anything. Research shows that when a stimulus, like a word or concept, is repeated, your brain becomes more efficient at processing it later, even if you don’t consciously remember seeing it before (1). This is why a vocabulary word looks more familiar the second time you see it, or why a concept starts to feel easier after repeated exposure. Your brain isn’t just remembering it’s becoming more efficient.
How Your Memory Can Be Rewritten and What to Do About It
By: Railynn Brown
Introduction
Have you ever been talking with a friend about something that happened, and suddenly your memory of it starts to change? Maybe you were completely sure about what you saw or learned, but then someone describes it a little differently, and now you’re second-guessing yourself. This actually happened to me during my first year of college when I was studying with a group and realized later that something I “remembered” for the exam was completely wrong.
Picture this: you’re talking with a friend about something that happened last week, and they confidently say, “Remember when that car sped through the stop sign?” You pause. You thought the car just rolled through it, but now you’re not so sure. As it turns out, the way someone describes something after the fact can actually change how you remember it.
In this post, I’m going to break down the misinformation effect and source monitoring errors in a way that actually connects to your experience as a college student. Once you understand how easily your memory can be influenced, it becomes a lot easier to avoid studying the wrong thing and walking into an exam feeling confident only to be disappointed with the results.
Have you ever tried to intensely study for a long period of time without breaks? If so, do not worry, you are amongst many who believe that this is an efficient way of studying. As a first year freshman, I came into college with some knowledge about studying, but not as much as I know now. It can be overwhelming entering a new stage in your life, especially if no one in your family was interested in furthering their education. With your first lectures you may think to yourself: Am I taking notes right? What does that mean? Is this useful? I can’t push you to study a certain way as to each their own but, personally what I thought was the best way to study was to cram everything into one session right before a test, although the outcomes varied. Or even studying for a long amount of time with no breaks.
What’s the difference?
First, I’ll begin by telling you the difference between Spaced (Distributed) and Mass (Cramming) Practices. (1) In spaced practice, learning is assisted by using several time intervals between short learning sessions. On the other hand, in mass practice, learning is assisted by using little to no intervals in between longer learning sessions.
Coming into college, I thought that mass practice was the way to go. As time went on, I slowly came to the realization that it wouldn’t always be reliable. With that being said, I began to use spaced practices and found that they carried a more steady outcome in assignments, quizzes, and exams.
Scientific Findings/ Evidence
According to Robert L. Hohn at The University of Kansas, conducted a study where they tested 40 kindergartners and did a “free recall” test. They listed off words and tried to see how many they could remember. They repeated the words to them back to back representing the mass studies. Also, they represented the spaced studies by spacing the repetitions throughout the list and repeating a word up to 4 times. The research came to the conclusion that the spaced studies was more effective than mass studies. The idea that mass practice wasn’t as successful is thought to be because of the word being repeated too fast, that it has lost its meaning.
According to Mary A. Pyc and John Dunlosky and Kent State University, two previous researchers found opposite results. Son (2004) found that students tend to cram difficult words and space easy words. While, Benjamin and Bird (2006) found that students chose to space difficult words and cram easy words. Pyc and Dunlosky found that students answers vary on how hard the question is or how much time they have.
The study found that students tend to cram if they do not understand a word the first time hearing it causing them to repeat it numerous times, or you don’t have enough time where as you just try and remember everything in that short amount of time. Students tend to use the spaced studies by default but, they don’t necessarily utilize it the right way. For example, when learning a word or subject and the student has time before the next assignment, they will tend to put it off since they feel they know what is presented. Or even if a student feels that a subject is too easy, they will choose to study more later. The research shows that students are adaptive to what type of practice they like to choose. If you feel like you basically have it, then you will space. If you feel that you do not or have less time, you will cram.
According to the Gomal Journal of Medical Sciences, Rani Ahmad, Omyayma Hamed, Reda Jamjoom, Yoon Soo Park, and Ara Tekian measured the faculty members performance and the students satisfaction that they taught. The mass group was significantly better at applying technical assessment tools. Also, exams created by the massed group had fewer flaws than the spaced group. Oddly enough, the spaced group had a slightly higher student success rate than the massed group. The study concluded that neither is superior but they each work in their own way. Spaced studies is ideal for long-term retention facts, while mass practice can be used for high level, complex findings that require students to learn something quickly.
Advice on how to use Spaced Practice Efficiently
Make sure that you have enough time to study is needed for you to succeed
Plan out what you are going to do ahead
When you feel you forgot some things, go re study the subject
Make sure to take breaks. ie; Study for an hour and a half and take a 15–20-minute break
Keep distractions away
Separate your studies to the days you do not have that class so you will remember more vividly.
Advice on how to AVOID mass practice
Do not wait until last minute to learn things!
Stay on top of your work
Stay organized
Set aside time and really make use of it
References
1: Hohn, R. L. (1971). Effects of massed vs. distributed practice and word frequency on young children’s free recall. Department of Psychology, University of Kansas. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED055653).
2: Pyc, M. A., & Dunlosky, J. (2010). Toward an understanding of students’ allocation of study time: Why do they decide to mass or space their practice?. Memory & Cognition, 38(4), 431-440.
3: Ahmad, R., Hamed, O., Jamjoom, R., Park, Y. S., & Tekian, A. (2023). COMPARING SPACED AND MASSED PRACTICES AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF LEARNING ASSESSMENT. Gomal Journal of Medical Sciences, 21(2), 103-109.
4: Dunlosky, J., & Rawson, K. A. (2015). Practice tests, spaced practice, and successive relearning: Tips for classroom use and for guiding students’ learning. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology, 1(1), 72.
5: Underwood, B. J. (1961). Ten years of massed practice on distributed practice. Psychological Review, 68(4), 229.
You’re studying and studying, but can’t retain the information, no matter how many times you review it? However, if you were asked for directions, you’d know to Never Eat Soggy Waffles? That is a mnemonic; a golden tool to help create shortcuts for information we want to remember. This same tool is used by top participants at the “World Memory Championship”, who credit their success not to the anatomy of their brain, but to their training with mnemonics.
Studying for classes or a test can be stressful at times, and prevent you from fully understanding the full material. Even when you prepare for a big exam you may not remember everything you studied and that can lead to an unwanted grade. A way to make your studying easier is by relating words or information to survival value. Doing this will make studying more effective because it taps into how human memory naturally works.
Our brains are wired to prioritise information that seems important for survival, so when something feels relevant to staying alive or solving real-life problems, the brain processes it more deeply and remembers it better. For example, instead of trying to memorize vocabulary or facts you can ask yourself how that information might help you in a real life situation, that way the information comes easier to remember because you related it to a real world experience. Say you were studying biology terms, you should think about how knowing them could help you identify or understand an illness.
In school, having a mindset of “why would this matter if I had to rely on it?” will help because, when you connect new information to meaningful or important ideas like survival, you’re not just memorizing; you’re actually understanding and organizing the material. That deeper level of processing makes it much easier to remember.
Everybody that has gone through at least their high school years has definitely had a thought or conversation wondering about why they are learning about something that will not help them in the real world. You ever realised how in some classes you feel like you understand way more compared to other classes. For example in high school, I felt like I understood way more in my economics and my financial aid classes compared to my English or history classes because in those classes I was learning about supply and demand, and how to deal with loans. The classes that had more relevancy to the real world were the classes I had the most success in because of the information had survival value.
(1) When words are processed for their fitness-relevance, they remember better than when they are processed for non-fitness issues; the survival processing advantage. In the present research, we investigated memory performance as a function of the level of relevance of words to survival issues. In study 1, a sample of French adults had to rate 732 words on the survival problems of “avoiding predators”, “avoiding contamination” or “finding food and water”. Three experiments were then conducted using the collected ratings to investigate whether the survival processing advantage in memory was moderated by the relation between relevance ratings. Words of high survival relevance were recalled better when encoded either for survival or for pleasantness.
The evidence from those studies show that your memory is in fact more efficient when relating the information to survival value. Relevancy is a strong tool for memory, if it’s relevant to you or your current situation you’re more likely to recall it if need be. That also applies to this technique, connecting the information to your relevant life will make it easier to remember because since it’s relevant it has more value to you so it’s less likely to be forgotten.
(2) This survival processing effect has been explained by selective tuning of human memory during evolution to process and retain information specifically relevant for survival. Our data demonstrate that the survival memory advantage indeed relies on the capacity-limited central stage of cognitive processing. Thus, rating words in the context of a survival scenario involves central processing resources to a greater amount than rating words in a nonsurvival control condition. We discuss implications for theories of the survival processing effect.
These results prove that just putting yours words in a survival scenario makes your brain go through a deeper faze of processing of that information, which makes your thoughts more relevant to you.
(3) Previous work in our laboratory has shown that human memory may be specially tuned to retain information processed in terms of its survival relevance. A few seconds of survival processing in an incidental learning context can produce recall levels greater than most, if not all, known encoding procedures. Survival processing produced the best recall, despite the fact that pleasantness ratings of words in a categorised list has long been considered a “gold standard” for enhancing free recall.
I can agree with the claim that survival processing is the best way to recall because of my personal experience; I often times find my self remembering more information when the topic is to some importance to my current life.
(4) Forty-eight university students completed a free recall task using words rated for their relevance to two survival-related dimensions: obtaining food and avoiding death. Results showed that high-survival-value words were recalled significantly better than neutral words across both dimensions, demonstrating that intrinsic semantic properties can engage adaptive memory mechanisms. These finding extend traditional theories that emphasise contextual survival scenarios as necessary triggers for the mnemonic advantage, suggesting that survival processing can also operate as a semantic feature of stimuli.
These experiments show that making words have survival value is reliable, and it actual works. Using this as a method for you school or even just as a mindset in your classes can help you stay more untuned with your material and find school to be easy.
(5) Processing items for their relevance to survival improves recall for those items relative to numerous other deep processing encoding techniques. Perhaps related, placing individuals in a mortality salient state has also been shown to enhance retention of items encoded after the morality salience manipulation
Another related method to survival value is shown to have similar results. They both are seen as a way to manipulate yourself into making information seem more important to you that way it holds more value which makes it easier to remember. You can think of it as a dresser for cloths; Say you have a drawer full of shirts, the drawers represent your brain and the shirts inside represent your memorise. When you open the drawers you see the folded shirts at the top first because they have more value to you so you wear those more often, then there are the forgotten shirts at the bottom that are nearly never worn. When the information has higher survival value to you, they are the first thing you see when you open your drawer. That’s the value in making words have survival value.
Bonin, P., Thiebaut, G. & Méot, A. Ratings of survival-related dimensions for a set of 732 words, their relationships with other psycholinguistic variables and memory performance. Curr Psychol43, 8200–8218 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-04979-2
Kroneisen, M., Erdfelder, E., Groß, R.M. et al. Survival processing occupies the central bottleneck of cognitive processing: A psychological refractory period analysis. Psychon Bull Rev31, 274–282 (2024). https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-023-02340-z
James S. Nairne, Josefa N.S. Pandeirada Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, 703 Third Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USAReceived 2 April 2008, Revised 5 June 2008, Available online 21 July 2008.https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0749596X08000545
Zerpa, A. E., & Alonso, M. A. (2026). Beyond the Grasslands: Memory Advantages from Intrinsic Survival-Value Stimuli. Digital.CSIC. http://doi.org/10.20350/DIGITALCSIC/18171
Burns, D. J., Hart, J., Kramer, M. E., & Burns, A. D. (2014). Dying to remember, remembering to survive: Mortality salience and survival processing. Memory, 22(1), 36–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2013.788660
If I could go back and give my freshman-self one piece of advice, it wouldn’t be “study more.”
It would be: you’re studying wrong.
Because the problem isn’t effort, it’s strategy.
Most college students rely on methods like rereading notes, highlighting everything, and cramming the night before an exam. These strategies feel productive. You spend hours looking at your notes, things start to look familiar, and it feels like you’re learning.
But then the test comes, and suddenly, your brain goes blank.
That disconnect isn’t because you’re not capable. It’s because those strategies don’t align with how your brain actually processes and stores information. Cognitive psychology shoes that learning is not about exposure, it’s about how you engage with information.
1. Your Brain Isn’t Built to Multitask
One of the biggest misconceptions about studying is that you can do it while doing other things. Watching a show, texting, or scrolling while studying feels efficient, but your brain doesn’t actually process both tasks at once.
Instead, it rapidly switches between them.
Every time your attention shifts, your brain loses part of the information it was trying to encode. This is why studying with distractions often leads to weak memory and poor recall later.
Think of your attention like a flashlight. Wherever you point it, that’s what your brain processes. If it keeps moving, nothing gets fully illuminated.
What works better:
· Study in short, focused blocks (25-45 minutes)
· Remove distractions completely (don’t just “ignore” them)
2. Rereading Creates the Illusion of Learning
Rereading is one of the most common study habits, and one of the least effective.
The reason is simple: it creates familiarity, not memory. When you reread, your brain recognizes the material and interprets that recognition as understanding. But recognition is much easier than recall.
On an exam, you don’t need to recognize information, you need to produce it.
This is why students often feel confident while studying but struggle during tests.
What actually works is retrieval.
Retrieval practice (actively pulling information out of memory) has been shown to significantly improve long-term retention compared to passive review.2
What works better:
· Close your notes and write everything you remember
· Quiz yourself regularly
· Explain concepts out loud like you’re teaching someone else
It will feel harder, and that’s exactly why it works.
3. Your Brain Has Limited Working Memory
Your brain can only hold a small amount of information at one time in working memory.
When you try to learn too much at once, that system becomes overloaded, and information gets lost.
This is why cramming entire chapters feels overwhelming and ineffective.
However, your brain has a strategy to deal with this limitation: chunking.
Chunking allows you to group information into meaningful units instead of remembering individual pieces. For example, remembering a concept as a whole is easier than memorizing disconnected details.
What works better:
· Break material into smaller sections
· Organize information into categories or themes
· Connect ideas instead of memorizing them separately
This reduces cognitive overload and makes information easier to retain.
4. Forgetting is Part of the Learning Process
Forgetting often feels like failure, but it’s actually a normal and necessary part of learning.
When you revisit information after some time has passed, your brain has to work to retrieve it. That effort strengthens the memory and makes it more durable.
In contrast, cramming keeps information in short-term memory but doesn’t allow it to transfer effectively into long-term storage.
Research on the spacing effect shows that spreading out study sessions leads to significantly better retention over time.
What works better:
· Study material across multiple days
· Revisit information after you’ve started to forget it
· Use repeated retrieval instead of one long session
Learning is strengthened through effort, not repetition alone.
5. Memory is Influenced by Context
Memory is not just about the information itself it’s also tied to the context in which you learn it.
This includes your environment, mood, and even subtle background cues.
Studies have shown that people recall information better when the conditions during retrieval match those during learning.5 This is why something can feel clearer while studying but harder to recall in a different setting, like a testing room.
What works better:
· Study in different locations
· Practice recalling information in varied contexts
· Avoid relying on one specific environment
This helps create flexible memories that are easier to access anywhere.
6. Your Brain Uses Shortcuts That Can Mislead You
Your brain is designed to be efficient, so it uses shortcuts called heuristics to make quick decisions. While these shortcuts are helpful, they can also lead to systemic errors.
One common issue in studying is focusing on material that feels easy or familiar instead of what actually needs improvement. This creates a false sense of mastery.
What works better:
· Identify weak areas and prioritize them
· Test yourself on difficult material
· Avoid relying on “feeling confident” as a measure of learning
Real learning often feels uncomfortable.
7. Meaningful Learning is Stronger Than Memorization
Your brain stores information more effectively when it’s meaningful.
Simply memorizing words or definitions without understanding them leads to weak memory traces. In contrast, connecting information to meaning, prior knowledge, or real-life application leads to stronger encoding.
This is especially important in fields like healthcare, where understanding concepts is critical for applying knowledge in real situations.
What works better:
· Ask yourself “why does this make sense?”
· Relate information to real-life examples
· Focus on understanding, not just memorization
Meaning creates stronger and more lasting memories.
So What Actually Works?
If all of this feels like a lot, it can be simplified into a few key principles:
· Stop rereading, start retrieving
· Stop multitasking, focus your attention
· Stop cramming, space your learning
· Stop memorizing blindly, build understanding
· Stop avoiding difficulty, target your weaknesses
Final Thought
Studying doesn’t have to feel frustrating or ineffective.
Once you understand how your brain actually works, learning becomes more strategic and less overwhelming. Instead of spending more time studying, you can spend your time studying better.
And that shift, from effort alone to effective strategy, is what makes the biggest difference.
References (Footnotes)
1. Pashler, H. (1994). Dual-Task Interference in Simple Tasks: Data and Theory. Psychological Bulletin, 116(2), 220-244. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.116.2.220
2. Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). Test-Enhanced Learning: Taking Memory Tests Improves Long-Term Retention. Psychological Science, 17(3), 249-255. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x
3. Baddeley, A. D. (2012). Working Memory: Theories, Models, and Controversies. Annual Review of Psychology, 63(1), 1-29. https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100422
4. Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed Practice in Verbal Recall Tasks: A Review and Quantitative Synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(3), 354-380. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354
5. Godden, D. R., & Baddeley, A. D. (1975). Context-Dependent Memory in Two Natural Environments: On Land and Underwater. British Journal of Psychology, 66(3), 325-331. https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1975.tb01468.x
6. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgement Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases. Science, 185(4157), 1124-1131. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.185.4157.1124
As you can see, we see pictures with words and pictures 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, 365 times a year. We visualize what we see and/or imagine. For example, if we see words and can imagine what we read in a book or magazine, this is called the Dual Coding Theory.
Verbal System – Words, language, and/or written or spoken information
Non-verbal System – Images, mental pictures, and sensory pictures
How Students Actually Use This Theory In This New Generation
Students nowadays use social media to make visualizations and imagery of what they are looking at. So, for example, you are on TikTok and see photo slides of a meme from a movie, with captions explaining the story and words that explain what is going on. This example shows Dual Coding Theory. We use it every day without everyone realizing it. This is what makes our brain feel engaged in a topic if we “doomscroll” every night on our phones.
With our brains feeling engaged by what we look at on our cellular devices, we get so fixated and are occupied with what we look at. Some students and the youth tend to look at memes as well to imagine and relate what the topic is about (the meme image above is an example).
Not only do we scroll daily on our phones, but mostly students read stories on their phones and/or books. If the story comes in with words, they imagine what’s happening in their minds. They do this just so they can get their brain working by using their visual system.
When I was in High School, I found myself studying for tests the night before and cramming all the material into one night study sessions. Once I got into college, I realized my prior study habits would not get me far , given how challenging the courses can be. Little did I know that the key to studying was actually something I had been doing since I was 6 years old! When you were a kid, did the story of your parents making you memorize their phone number or a street address by learning each part sound familiar? If it does, well then, you are already familiar with the concept of chunking! Splitting up the numbers in your parents’ phone number and memorizing each section, or by splitting up your street address and memorizing the number, street, and zip code separately, and then putting it all together, is a prime example of how chunking information works (1)!
What is Chunking and Its Relation to Short Term Memory
Your brain and its short-term memory can only hold so much information in it at once. Chunking greatly benefits how much storage (or memory) you can fit in your short-term memory. Some people call it a type of data compression by being able to squeeze down a lot of words into a short bank known as your short-term memory (2). When you first encounter a phrase, you might try to make each word in that phrase its own chunk, but as you familiarize yourself with that phrase, you can start making that whole phrase one chunk rather than 4 separate chunks (3). The limitations are not just phrases, though! You can do this with practically anything if you learn a good chunking method that can help you familiarize yourself with the information in your brain. Chunking is a sure-fire way to help improve your short-term memory and be able to store more information in that short-term memory bank.
How To Chunk
Chunking is very simple, and there’s a high chance that you already do it in your everyday life! As I mentioned earlier, having to memorize a phone number is an example of chunking, as you are chunking 3-4 different numbers in their own category. Another example is when making a grocery list. Rather than trying to memorize every single item, you might chunk an item to its category so it’s more organized and easier to remember, rather than trying to remember a super long list of groceries. Now, how can this be used in school? Well, let’s say you need to memorize the 50 states in the US. Well, rather than having to try to memorize each state, you can memorize each region. Rather than memorizing 50 states, you are now only memorizing 10-12 states. By chunking each state into a region, you are now really only memorizing 5 regions rather than 50 states. Well, that just made everything way simpler!
For example, you might be asking what the point of chunking is. How’s it different from trying to cram everything in your mind and remembering it for later? Well, the short answer is… Recall! Across four different experiments, it was found that not only does chunking result in better recall for information, but it also helps you recall information you didn’t chunk as well because chunked information takes up less room in your short-term memory (4)! Chunking provides a way for the short-term memory to be able to hold information, but to be able to recall it when needed. So if you are taking a stressful test, if you crammed the information in, there’s a high chance you will forget it during the test, but by studying with chunking, there’s a much higher chance you will be able to recall it when necessary.
Don’t Let Anything Interfere with Chunking!
While chunking helps benefit study habits to better retain information about a topic, there are a couple of problems or “interferences” that can arise. The first problem is proactive interference, where memory from old information can interfere with memory of new information (5). For example, when making that grocery list, there’s a chance you accidentally chunk ice cream into the dairy category, but you just got ice cream recently, and you don’t actually need it. This is proactive interference, mixing up your previous grocery list with your current grocery list, or better understood as old information mixing up your new information. The other problem that could affect your short-term memory is retroactive interference, which is where new information can interfere with older information. If you are studying for two tests, then the test that you were studying for more recently will interfere with the information you studied for in the test you studied for less recently. Both these kinds of interference can potentially affect chunking strategies, but this can also be true for every study technique.
Conclusion
Many people become stressed by college strictly because it is programmed in their mind how “difficult” the assignments and tests can be. Sure, the difficulty of assessments may increase, but by adapting the proper study techniques like chunking, it will provide a new light to how you study and provide better ways to recall information (4) and be able to squeeze more information into your short-term memory (2). By being able to chunk information, you are putting yourself in a position to succeed in college and beyond!
References
Norris, D., Kalm, K., & Hall, J. (2020). Chunking and redintegration in verbal short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 46(5), 872–893. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000762
Jones, G. (2012). Why Chunking Should be Considered as an Explanation for Developmental Change before Short-Term Memory Capacity and Processing Speed. Frontiers in Psychology, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00167
Thalmann, M., Souza, A. S., & Oberauer, K. (2019). How Does Chunking Help Working memory? Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 45(1), 37–55. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000578
Atkins, A. S., Berman, M. G., Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., Lewis, R. L., & Jonides, J. (2011). Resolving semantic and proactive interference in memory over the short-term. Memory & Cognition, 39(5), 806–817. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-011-0072-5
